Historical Perspective
For generations, handwashing with soap and water has been
considered a measure of personal hygiene (1). The concept of
cleansing hands with an antiseptic agent probably emerged in the early 19th century. As early as 1822, a French pharmacist demonstrated that solutions containing chlorides of lime or soda could eradicate the foul odors associated with human corpses and that such solutions could be used as disinfectants and antiseptics (2). In a paper published in 1825, this pharmacist stated that physicians and other persons attending patients with contagious diseases would benefit from moistening their hands with a liquid chloride solution (2).
In 1846, Ignaz Semmelweis observed that women whose babies were delivered by students and physicians in the First Clinic at the General Hospital of Vienna consistently had a higher mortality rate than those whose babies were delivered by midwives in the Second Clinic (3). He noted that physicians who went directly from the autopsy suite to the obstetrics ward had a disagreeable odor on their hands despite washing their hands with soap and water upon entering the obstetrics clinic. He postulated that the puerperal fever that affected so many parturient women was
caused by "cadaverous particles" transmitted from the autopsy suite to the obstetrics ward via the hands of students and physicians. Perhaps because of the known deodorizing effect of chlorine compounds, as of May 1847, he insisted that students and physicians clean their hands with a chlorine solution between each patient in the clinic. The maternal mortality rate in the First Clinic subsequently dropped dramatically and remained low for years. This intervention by Semmelweis represents the first evidence indicating that cleansing heavily contaminated hands with an antiseptic agent between patient contacts may reduce health-care--associated transmission of contagious diseases more effectively than handwashing with plain
soap and water.
In 1843, Oliver Wendell Holmes concluded independently that
puerperal fever was spread by the hands of health personnel (1). Although he described measures that could be taken to limit its spread, his recommendations had little impact on obstetric practices at the time. However, as a result of the seminal studies by Semmelweis and Holmes, handwashing gradually became accepted as one of the most important measures for preventing transmission of pathogens in health-care facilities.
In 1961, the U. S. Public Health Service produced a training
film that demonstrated handwashing techniques recommended for use by health-care workers (HCWs) (4). At the time,
recommendations directed that personnel wash their hands with soap and water for 1--2 minutes before and after patient contact. Rinsing hands with an antiseptic agent was believed to be less effective than handwashing and was recommended only in emergencies or in areas where sinks were unavailable.
In 1975 and 1985, formal written guidelines on handwashing
practices in hospitals were published by CDC (5,6). These
guidelines recommended handwashing with non-antimicrobial soap between the majority of patient contacts and washing with antimicrobial soap before and after performing invasive
procedures or caring for patients at high risk. Use of waterless antiseptic agents (e.g., alcohol-based solutions) was recommended only in situations where sinks were not available.
In 1988 and 1995, guidelines for handwashing and hand antisepsis were published by the Association for Professionals in Infection Control (APIC) (7,8). Recommended indications for handwashing were similar to those listed in the CDC guidelines. The 1995 APIC guideline included more detailed discussion of alcohol-based hand rubs and supported their use in more clinical settings than had been recommended in earlier guidelines. In 1995
and 1996, the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) recommended that either antimicrobial soap or a waterless antiseptic agent be used for cleaning hands upon leaving the rooms of patients with multidrug-resistant pathogens (e.g., vancomycin-resistant enterococci [VRE] and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA]) (9,10). These guidelines also provided recommendations for handwashing and hand antisepsis in other clinical settings, including routine patient care. Although the APIC and HICPAC guidelines have been adopted by the majority of hospitals, adherence of HCWs
to recommended handwashing practices has remained low (11,12).
Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings
Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force
Prepared by
John M. Boyce, M.D.1
Didier Pittet, M.D.2
1Hospital of Saint Raphael
New Haven, Connecticut
2University of Geneva
Geneva, Switzerland
References
1. Rotter M. Hand washing and hand disinfection [Chapter 87]. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
2. Labarraque AG. Instructions and observations regarding the use of the chlorides of soda and lime. Porter J, ed. [French] New Haven, CT: Baldwin and Treadway, 1829.
3. Semmelweis I. Etiology, concept, and prophylaxis of childbed fever. Carter KC, ed. 1st ed. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.
4. Coppage CM. Hand washing in patient care [Motion picture]. Washington, DC: US Public Health Service, 1961.
5. Steere AC, Mallison GF. Handwashing practices for the
prevention of nosocomial infections. Ann Intern Med 1975;83:683--90.
6. Garner JS, Favero MS. CDC guideline for handwashing and
hospital environmental control, 1985. Infect Control 1986;7:231--43.
7. Larson E. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:253--66.
8. Larson EL, APIC Guidelines Committee. APIC guideline for
handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:251--69.
9. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee
(HICPAC). Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:105--13.
10. Garner JS, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:53--80.
11. Pittet D, Mourouga P, Perneger TV, Members of the Infection Control Program. Compliance with handwashing in a teaching hospital. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:126--30.
12. Boyce JM. It is time for action: improving hand hygiene
in hospitals. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:153--5.
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